Part B- Concepts and Principles
B-1: Define and Provide Examples of Behaviour, Response, and Response Class
Behaviour: The activity of living organisms; things people do.
Example: Clapping your hands
Response: A specific instance of behaviour.
Example: Clapping your hands 5 times
Response Class: A group of responses with the same function, but different topography.
Example: Calling a restaurant to order pizza, ordering pizza using an app, or going in person and ordering pizza. All responses have different topography, yet share the same function of ordering pizza.
B-2: Define and Provide Examples of Stimulus and Stimulus Class
Stimulus: An energy change that affects an organism through its receptor cells
Exteroreceptors: Any of the sense organs are effected (touch, taste, hearing, olfactory, vision)
Interoreceptors: Inside your body- specifically viscera (stomach)
Proprioceptors: Sense of balance and movement
Stimulus Class: A group of stimuli that share a predetermined set of common elements in one or more dimensions.
Example: Pepperoni pizza, cheese pizza, Hawaiian pizza, or bbq chicken pizza, are all pizza, even though their toppings are varied.
Discriminative Stimulus: A stimulus that controls a type of behaviour due to differential availability; The antecedent event that occurs before the target response can have control over a response class, due to previous consequences
Differential Availability: The reinforcer/consequence is available in the presence of the stimulus and unavailable during the absence of the stimulus
Stimulus Delta (S-Delta): Unavailability of a reinforcer
Stimulus Class Vs Response Class
Response class is how you access the group of things and stimulus class is a group of similar things.
Response class= Same type of behaviours/similar actions
Stimulus class= Same type of thing/similar objects/situation
Example: You want to get a pizza, you think about different response classes to access pizza from Pizza Hut (call the restaurant, using an app, or go in person) and you choose to use the app to order. Now, you think of the stimulus class, what type of pizza should you order (pepperoni pizza, cheese pizza, Hawaiian pizza, or bbq chicken pizza) and you choose a cheese pizza.
B-3: Define and Provide Examples of Respondent and Operant Conditioning
Respondent Conditioning: New stimuli acquire the ability to elicit responses (higher-order conditioning); also known as S-R
Operant Conditioning: Process and selective effects of consequences on behaviour; also known as A-B-C
B-4: Define and Provide Examples of Positive and Negative Reinforcement Contingencies
Reinforcer: A stimulus that increases the frequency, of the behaviour that immediately precedes it
Remember, a stimulus can only be classified as a reinforcer IF it increases the frequency of behaviour
A preferred item may not always be a reinforcer
Reinforcement: A functional relation where a response is followed by a reinforcer, resulting in an increase in the frequency of the response.
Positive Reinforcement: A response followed immediately by the presentation of a stimulus, resulting in similar responses occurring more frequently in the future.
An item/activity can only be deemed as positive reinforcer after identifying whether the target behaviour has increased, following the presentation of the item/activity
Example: After receiving a candy every time an individual colours within the lines, the individual colours within the lines more frequently.
Negative Reinforcement: A response followed immediately by the removal of a stimulus, resulting in similar responses occurring more frequently in the future.
an item/activity can only be deemed as negative reinforcer after identifying whether the target behaviour has increased, following the removal of the item/activity
Example: After hearing a loud sound, an individual covers their ears. In the future, the individual covers their ears every time they hear a loud sound.
Reinforcement Contingencies
Provide reinforcement within 0 seconds-1 minute to have the greatest effect
If the reinforcer does not follow the response/behaviour closely, a different response/behaviour may be inadvertently reinforced
Reinforcement strategies should ALWAYS be a part of your treatment package
Types of Reinforcement
There are sooooo many types of reinforcement. Let’s take a deep dive into the different types of reinforcement.
Contingent Reinforcement: When reinforcement is dependent upon the occurrence after a target behaviour.
Example: Every time a you go to the gym, you can get yourself your favourite smoothie, but id you do not go to the gym, you do not get the smoothie.
Non-Contingent Reinforcement (NCR): A reinforcer that is presented at a fixed-time (FT) or variable-time (VT) schedule, regardless of the occurrence of a target behaviour. This is typically used as an antecedent intervention when problem behaviours are occurring.
Example: Every 30 minutes, an individual receives a skittle.
Differential Reinforcement: Providing more enthusiastic and longer duration of reinforcement for responses within a response class that meet a specific criterion and putting all other responses in the class on extinction.
Example 1: Teaching a child to tact ‘ball’: Therapist holds a ball and asks, “what is it?” Child replies, “ball.” Therapist says, “great job saying ball,” and provides a skittle.
Example 2: Teaching a child to tact ‘ball’: Therapist holds a ball and asks, “what is it?” Child replies, “phone.” Therapist conducts an error correction procedure and says, “nice try.”
B-5: Define and Provide Examples of Schedules of Reinforcement
Schedules of Reinforcement: A rule describing the contingency of reinforcement based on environmental arrangements
Thinning a Reinforcement Schedule: Decreasing the density of reinforcement for a specific response
Ratio Strain: Decrease in performance due to thinning of reinforcement schedule
Basic Schedules of Reinforcement
Steady State Patterns of Performance for Basic Schedules of Reinfocement
CRF: Provides reinforcement for every occurrence of a behaviour; weak resistance to extinction;
Extinction: Response never produces reinforcement; results in behaviour reducing to zero-levels
Fixed Ratio: Step-like increase; incline is the high rate of response, tick is the reinforcer being provided, and plateau is the post reinforcement pause
Variable Ratio: High steady rate of responding; no post-reinforcement pause
Fixed Interval: Scalloped steady-state pattern of responding; humans do not typically follow this schedule
Variable Interval: Steady rate of responding; very few, if any, post reinforcement pauses
B-6: Define and Provide Examples of Positive and Negative Punishment Contingencies
Punishment: Presentation or removal of a stimuli that decreases the future occurrence of the behaviour it immediately follows; always consider as the final procedure, after reinforcement procedures have been considered
Punisher: A stimulus that decreases the frequency of the behaviour that immediately precedes it
Positive Punishment (Type 1): Presentation of a stimuli that decreases the future occurrence of the behaviour it immediately follows; add something aversive
Example: A restraint when an individual is engaging in hitting behaviour. A decrease in hitting behaviour is seen immediately following the restraint.
Negative Punishment (Type 2): Removal/termination of a stimuli that decreases the future occurrence of the behaviour it immediately follows; remove something reinforcing
Example: Removal of a token when individual engages in spitting behaviour. A decrease in spitting behaviour is seen immediately following the removal of a token.
B-7: Define and Provide Examples of Automatic and Socially Mediated Contingencies
Automatic Contingencies: When reinforcement is produced by the behaviour itself, without any external input. Clinicians should only target these behaviours if they pose a risk or are significantly disruptive to the individual or to others around them.
Example: Self-stimulation, tapping your foot, or clicking a pen
Socially Mediated Contingencies: When reinforcement is dependent on another individual.
Example: Every time you dive into the deep end during your swimming lesson, your coach and peers clap for you. You continue to dive every class to receive socially mediated reinforcement.
B-8: Define and Provide Examples of Unconditioned, Conditioned, and Generalized Reinforcers and Punishers
Unconditioned Reinforcer: A primary reinforcer or unlearned reinforcer; a neutral stimuli that functions as reinforcement (increases future occurrence of behaviour).
Example: Food, water, sex
Conditioned Reinforcer: A learned reinforcer; a stimuli that functions as reinforcement (increases future occurrence of behaviour) due to learned history.
Example: Attention, praise
Generalized Reinforcer: A stimuli that has previously been paired with unconditioned or conditioned reinforcers and continues to function as reinforcement.
Example: Money
Unconditioned Punisher: A primary punisher or unlearned punisher; a neutral stimuli that functions as punishment (decreases future occurrence of behaviour).
Example: Painful stimulation or certain odours/tastes
Conditioned Punisher: A learned punisher; a stimuli that functions as punishment (decreases future occurrence of behaviour) due to learned history.
Example: Depends on history of reinforcement/punishment of each individual
Generalized Punisher: A stimuli that has previously been paired with unconditioned or conditioned punishers and continues to function as punishment.
Example: Reprimands
B-9: Define and Provide Examples of Operant Extinction
Extinction: Response is not followed by reinforcement, resulting in decrease in response levels
Example: Individual engages in screaming, but does not receive attention by caregiver. Over time, individual stops engaging in screaming. '
Side Effects of Extinction:
- Increase in frequency, duration and intensity or extinction burst
- Change in topography or increase in variability
- Emotional responses may occur such as crying, swearing, depression, etc.,
- Extinction induced -aggression,
- Resurgence of challenging behaviours
B10: Define and Provide Examples of Stimulus Control
Stimulus Control: In the presence of a given stimulus, a behaviour occurs more frequently, for a longer duration, latency, or amplitude, rather than in the absence of the given stimulus.
Example: Individual engages in crying when hearing the sound of a toilet flushing. The individual does not cry during other situations.
B-11: Define and Provide Examples of Discrimination, Generalization, and Maintenance
Discrimination: A behaviour occurs in the presence of a limited number of stimuli.
Example: A child sees a cat and says “cat,” but does not say “cat” when they see a dog.
Generalization: A certain behaviour occurs in the presence of a variety of stimuli.
Example: A child is taught to request for help in a centre, the child begins to ask for help at school and in the home with whom the program was not learned.
Maintenance: A certain behaviour continues to be part of an individual’s repertoire, even after the removal of formal teaching of the program.
Example: A child is taught to tie their shoes and they continue to maintain the skill of tying a shoe over the years.
B-12: Define and Provide Examples of Motivating Operations
Motivating Operations: A behaviour occurs in the presence of a limited number of stimuli.
Value altering effect: Alters effectiveness (establish or abolish) of a stimulus
Behaviour altering effect: Alters current frequency (evoke or abate) of a behaviour
Establishing Operations (EO): Increases effectiveness and frequency of the presented reinforcer
Abolishing Operations (AO): Decreases effectiveness and frequency of presented reinforcer
Unconditioned Motivating Operations (UMOs): No learning is required with a stimulus for it to have a reinforcing effect.
Example: Food/water deprivation, satiation of food/water, increase in pain
Conditioned Motivating Operations (CMOs):
Surrogate (CMO-S): A neutral stimulus has the same value altering and behaviour altering effect as the MO it is paired with and the effects can be altered by pairing and unpairing
Example: You listen to a specific song while working out and every time you hit a personal record when you listen to that song.
Reflexive (CMO-R): A neutral stimulus alters a relation to itself and establishes its own result as reinforcement and evokes all behaviour that has accomplished that result
Example: A child crying when they are denied access to preferred toys.
Transitive (CMO-T): An event where one stimulus makes it necessary to complete the response and a second stimulus becomes it’s reinforcer
Example: Studying for the BCBA Exam and CHH
B-13: Define and Provide Examples of Rule-Governed and Contingency-Shaped Behaviour
Rule Governed Behaviour: A rule functions as a verbal discriminative stimulus and a behaviour is under the rule’s stimulus control.
2 relations:
Long-Term/Ultimate Relation- Reason for the rule
Example: Don’t touch hot surfaces with your bare hands
Short-Term/Proximate Reinforcement Relation
Example: Using oven mitts when taking hot items out of the oven
Contingency-Shaped Behaviour: A behaviour that is controlled by the direct relation between the response and its consequences.
Example: In the past, you have dated a guy and had an off-and-on relationship which ends badly. You see your sister doing the same thing, you offer her advice to let this be the final time you get back with this guy but she does not learn. One year later, she decided to finally end things with the guy for good. She needed to learn that continuing to stay with the guy is a poor choice and the consequence was that she continued to be upset.
B-14: Define and Provide Examples of The Verbal Operants
Mand: Involves a response of any form that is evoked by an MO and followed by a specific reinforcement. Mand allows you to get what you want and refuse what you don’t want. There is no Point-to-Point correspondence or formal similarity between the SD and the response.
Example: If cookies are on top of the fridge and the child cannot access it and is motivated by hunger will ask for the cookie and once received will be reinforced by the cookie.
Tact: Involves a response that is evoked by a visual stimulus and maintained by a generalized conditioned reinforcer.
Example: You show a child an apple and the child says, “apple,” then you say great job!
Echoic: Involves a vocal response that is evoked by a vocal SD that has formal familiarity between an auditory verbal stimulus and auditory verbal response product and a history of generalized reinforcement.
Example: When the teach is teaching a child to pronounce the word “apple” would say repeat after me “ apple” and the child repeats “ apple.”
Intraverbal: Involves a response that is evoked by a verbal discriminative stimulus that does not have point-to-point correspondence with the verbal stimulus. It is the opposite of echoic, the words emitted by one speaker does not match the words of another speaker. Questions are mands and answers are intraverbals.
Example: I am cooking and I need to know where the spatula is I ask, “ where is the spatula” my friend answers, “ in the dishwasher and its clean to use.”
Textual: Involves a response that is evoked by a written verbal discriminative stimulus that does not have formal familiarity between the stimulus and the response, but does have point-to-point correspondence and a history of generalized reinforcement.
Example: I ask my student to read the quote from Shakespeare’s book. The student reading aloud the quote is textual verbal behaviour.
Codic: Involves a written response that is evoked by written verbal stimulus that has formal similarity and a history of generalized reinforcement and point-to-point correspondence but no formal similarity.
Example: The teach wants you to copy the formula on the board so she writes, “E=MC2” and the student copies it onto her notebook
Duplic: Involves a spoken verbal stimulus that evokes a written, typed, or finger spelled response. Like textual there is point-to-point correspondence between the stimulus and the response product but no formal similarity.
Example: When the receptionist on the phone provides me with the address to the dentist’s office and I write it down on a piece of paper.
B-15: Define and Provide Examples of Derived Stimulus Relations
Derived Stimulus Relations (AKA stimulus equivalent and equivalence relation): A relation between two or more untrained stimuli.
Symmetry and transitivity is necessary to meet the definition of the equivalence relation.
Reflexivity: A=A relation.
Example: A child matches two identical pictures of a dog.
Symmetry: A=B/B=A relation.
Example: A child learns the spoken word ‘dog’ (stimulus A) accompanied with the picture of a ‘dog’ (stimulus B). The child can then be shown the picture of a ‘dog’ and can say ‘dog’.
Transitivity: Can only occur after symmetry is accomplished. A=C relation.
Example: A child learns the spoken word ‘dog’ (stimulus A) accompanied with the picture of a ‘dog’ (stimulus B). The child can then be shown the picture of a ‘dog’ and can say ‘dog’. Now, the child can look at the written word ‘dog’ (stimulus C) and say ‘dog’.
